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Bundelkhand
Region : A
Primer
The
Physical Setting
Geology and Topography / Climate
/ Drainage / Vegetation
and Soils / Environmental
Concerns
Occupying almost 70,000 square kilometers of the central plains
in India, the Bundelkhand stretches over twelve districts of
northern Madhya Pradesh (MP) and five districts of southern Uttar
Pradesh (UP). Bounded to the north by the Yamuna River and to the
south by the hills of the Vindhyan Plateau, the region presents a
unique set of geologic and geographic characteristics which have
had profound effects on human development in the region as well as
on the country as a whole.
Geology and Topography
Granites of varying types from the Lower Pre Cambrian/Archaen
period are the predominant geological material found across in the
region. These are followed by gneisses and sedimentary strata such
as sandstone and limestone. The latter is particularly conspicuous
in the northern parts of Datia and Chhatarpur districts. In the
southern extremity of the Bundelkhand, imposing escarpments of
limestone and sandstone form the backbone of the Vindhyan range,
which has effectively isolated the region from the south and is
traditionally viewed as the division between northern and southern
India. Alluvial deposits of clay, silt and sand of subaerial and
fluviatile origin are the most recent geologic deposits in the
Bundelkhand and are more predominant near the Yamuna River and its
tributaries.
The resulting terrain is gently undulating; grading slowly into
a level plain in the northern third of the region. Rocky outcrops
and boulder-strewn plains cover much of this area producing a more
rugged looking landscape. The region is nevertheless quite flat
over much of its expanse. Even in the southern hills, the
elevation very rarely exceeds 450 m, with the majority of the
hills varying in height from 300 m to 366 m. Spectacular ravine
lands in the north and deep gorges in the south result from the
active erosion of the unconsolidated alluvial material deposited
by the main streams in the region, namely the Betwa, Dhasan and
the Ken. These ravines and gorges are uncultivable and pose an
increasing threat to nearby farmland as they continue to expand.
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Climate
Located between the generally hot and humid climate of the
eastern coast (Bay of Bengal) and the dry continental climate of
the west (Rajasthan), the Bundelkhand generally experiences a
semi-arid climate, though this is highly variable depending on the
region and the time of year. Indeed, the area is notorious for
experiencing droughts in summer and disastrous floods during the
monsoon.
As with the rest of the Indian sub-continent, the Bundelkhand
sees two main seasons: monsoon and dry. The monsoon brings over
90% of the annual rainfall between the months of June to
September, with the highest precipitation occurring in July and
August. On average, the region receives anywhere from 75 cm to 125
cm of rain each year. The dry plains in the north usually receive
less while the southeast benefits from more water.
Daily temperatures also fluctuate depending on the time of the
year. Peak summer (May - June) brings excessively high
temperatures, often topping 40C, as the hot, dry loo winds
sweep in from the desert. During the winter months (December -
February) daytime temperatures are quite pleasant reaching highs
between 16.5C and 21C. Nighttime brings much cooler temperatures
and frost has been known to occur on the coldest evenings.
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Drainage
The Bundelkhand is drained by the Yamuna River system, itself
one of the principal tributaries of the Ganges. Due to this,
drainage occurs principally from north to south, with some local
variation depending on topography. The main tributaries of the
Yamuna are the Betwa, Ken, Baghain, Pahuj and Dhasan Rivers, most
of which are important sources of irrigation water. However, even
more important than these for checkdams are the numerous small
streams and nallahs that feed the larger rivers.
Flow in most of the watercourses varies considerably according
to season. The monsoon brings heavy flooding and the highest flows
in all the rivers and tributaries. During the dry season, nallahs
often become dry and the flow in the major rivers dwindles. As a
consequence, irrigation becomes difficult and greater stress is
placed on groundwater resources.
Both man-made and natural water bodies dot the countryside.
These vary from lakes and reservoirs to tanks and other water
harvesting structures, and play an important role in assuring
water security in the region. The most well known are: Pahuj
reservoir, Barwar sagar, Barwar lake, Siaori lake, Pachawara lake,
Dakwan and Parichha reservoirs, Arthar tal, Manikput tal,
Majhgawan tal, Bela tal, and Raipura sagar among
others.
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Vegetation and Soils
The natural vegetation in the Bundelkhand reflects the
semi-arid climate that it is subject to during most of the year.
The region was previously forested, but intensive harvesting over
the past several centuries has left the countryside denuded of its
forest land. Khardai, teak and different varieties of
acacia (dhak, semal, salai and babul) are the most common
tree species, although only the latter two have any economic
benefit.
Grasses are predominant in the rocky plains and hills,
particularly after the monsoon, although scrub and brush species
are also common where more water is available for their growth. Siari,
katai, gunj, bel and ghout trees provide some shelter
in the normally open "wastelands" which characterize the
Bundelkhand region. These grasses and shrub species are important
as fodder for cattle and have economic value.
Soil in the Bundelkhand is often divided into two major types:
red and black. Both are present in varying degrees, depending on
location. Red soils are more predominant in the northwestern
region and are usually gravely and shallow with consequently poor
moisture retention. The characteristics of these soils also make
them vulnerable to over-irrigation. Conversely, black soils, which
are found mostly in the south, are more water retentive and are
therefore preferred for wheat, gram and sugarcane cultivation.
Covering only a small percentage of the Bundelkhand, riverine
soils are primarily formed by sand and clays. These soils are
generally not used for agriculture and are therefore not
considered as an important soil type in the region.
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Environmental Concerns
In this semi-arid region, human development and the environment
are closely linked. But where historically the environment
dictated how much the human population could develop, the
residents in this region have now turned the tables and are
influencing their environment.
The impact of human activity on the region has until now been
unsustainable. Even now, the Bundelkhand is seen as a region
suffering from acute ecological degradation. Logging and mining
activities over the past several centuries have denuded the
landscape and facilitated the erosion of the fragile soils.
Additional population and livestock pressures, which are already
high, have only served to aggravate the problem. Expanding ravine
lands, especially in the northern area, are already threatening
local farmland and can have serious consequences on the
socio-economic situation.
Access to abundant water resources has always been one of the
major environmental concerns in the region. Irregular rainfall has
often led to either drought or flood conditions with consequent
effects on the natural and human environment. Increasing
dependence on groundwater resources has led to a lowering of the
groundwater table in places where withdrawals have exceeded
recharge. The decline in groundwater levels has further undermined
water security in the region and accelerated desertification and
erosion. In recent years water quality has also emerged as a
principal environmental concern. Erosion from marginal lands and
agricultural fields has increased the sediment load in the rivers
and has already shortened the lifespan of many checkdams and water
harvesting structures. The growing use of pesticides and chemical
fertilizers, which until now has remained quite low, will also
affect water quality in the future.
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The
Social Setting
Population / Human
Development / Economy and
Agriculture / Irrigation
Isolated due to the natural geography and harshness of the
climate, the people of the Bundelkhand have remained both
politically and economically separated from the rest of India.
As such the area has one of the lowest
levels of economic and human development in the country. Indeed,
the remoteness of the region has prevented the development of
basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity, water and
sanitation services, and telephone lines. The lack of these
services has only perpetuated the poverty cycle in the region.
Population
According to current estimates, the human population of the
Bundelkhand region is approximately 21 million. The present
population is four times greater than in 1961, which indicates
that the population growth rate has remained high since the green
revolution improved cropping practices and ensured greater food
security. In fact, historical data on population growth in the
region shows that population size over the past century has
fluctuated widely due to the climate (floods and drought),
immigration from Pakistan and urban migration, and epidemics of
cholera and influenza.
Population distribution has remained fairly even despite the
increase in total population size in the latter half of the past
century. The Bundelkhand is an agriculture-intensive region and
therefore the majority of the population are rural and dispersed
over the area. Nonetheless, increasing population pressures will
force a greater number to settle marginal lands which have
previously remained abandoned. In addition, more and more rural
inhabitants are leaving their villages and migrating to the larger
urban centers such as Jhansi in southern UP. Recent rural
migration data indicates a rate as high as 39% per year, which is
over three and a half times the national average of 11%.
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Human Development
Human development indicators such as per capita income and
literacy levels show that the Bundelkhand is among the least
developed regions in the country. Per capita income hovers around
Rs. 8,114 versus the national average of Rs. 13,193 in 1997-98 .
Crippling poverty has therefore prevented many from improving
their situation. Although the entire population suffers from poor
development, women and the Scheduled Castes and Tribes (SC/ST)
enjoy fewer benefits than men of higher caste.
In general, few facilities are available to the population.
Health care is virtually non-existent and many die from
preventable diseases each year. Water-related illnesses such as
chronic diarrhea and malaria are particularly prevalent and affect
a large percentage of the population. Infant and maternal
mortality is high and the use of family planning measures still
has not been widely adopted in the more remote areas.
Education opportunities are few and most children only complete
the primary level. Those willing to continue on to higher
education often must travel to major centers for the privilege.
Adult literacy therefore remains low: just 51% of rural men and
20% of rural women in the region are able to read and write. The
majority work as farmers or agricultural labourers, occasionally
supplementing their incomes during the non-planting season working
as day labourers or in small cottage industries. Male rural
out-migration is quite common but nonetheless disruptive to the
family social unit.
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Economy and Agriculture
The regional economy is almost exclusively based on
agriculture, owing to the predominantly rural population and lack
of exploitable natural resources. Industry is mostly absent, save
in the larger towns and cities such as Jhansi. Statistics show
that the ratio of working factories to 100,000 people is 1.6 in
the Bundelkhand versus 6.3 in the rest of Central India. Most of
the non-agricultural economy is based on small commercial ventures
or the provision of basic services.
Agriculture plays an important role in the Bundelkhand economy.
However, even this sector has not been exploited to its full
potential due to several factors. Poor soils and uncertain
rainfall have made agriculture difficult in many areas. Crop
productivity is among the lowest in the country, and even the
value of agricultural production per hectare in the region is 1.4
times less than for Central India. Frequent droughts and floods
have destroyed crops and undermined social security as well, and
few farmers irrigate their lands. Perpetuating the cycle has been
the poverty that has prevented many farmers from switching to more
efficient farming methods. As such, most of the agriculture is
subsistence and contributes little to the overall economy in the
region.
Nonetheless, the principle crops in the Bundelkhand are cereals
such as wheat, rice, and barley. Cereals occupy the majority of
the cropped area and are sown primarily during the rabi
(winter/dry) season. In addition, pulses, grams and oil seeds are
also important crops. Fruits, vegetables, and fibres are only
secondary in importance and are localised to specific geographic
areas. Mixed cropping is still practised by farmers as a
precautionary measure against crop failure but the method is
encountered less and less, particularly where there is access to
irrigation.
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Irrigation
As mentioned, the Bundelkhand region is predominantly rural and
as a consequence, agriculture is the mainstay of most inhabitants.
However, the generally semi-arid climate of the region has limited
agricultural development and prevented it from reaching its full
potential in many areas. Irrigation is generally prescribed as the
means to achieve adequate agricultural production and improve the
livelihoods of the people. Yet to date, the use of irrigation
remains abysmally low.
Irrigation is not a new concept in the Bundelkhand; as early as
the fifteenth century AD tanks and reservoirs were already being
used for water harvesting and irrigation. Although many of these
structures have fallen into disrepair or have been destroyed, some
are still in use today. The majority of the irrigated land
receives water from later construction works such as the canals
built during the British Raj or the post-Independence Matatila,
Lalitput, and Sarpar dams. These structures have done much to
increase the irrigation potential of the region, but still only
benefit a third of the cultivable area.
Groundwater extraction from wells is the primary source of
irrigation water over most of the region. The rolling terrain and
the variable depth of the soil means that the groundwater table
can be found at a depth anywhere between 3 m and 22 m or more.
However, the relative accessibility of groundwater means that most
farmers can obtain water from their own land regardless of their
distance to a major surface water source. Mechanized pumping using
gasoline or diesel powered pumps has greatly increased the use of
groundwater for irrigation.
While the use of irrigation has improved the lot of many
farmers in the region, the widespread use of groundwater has
severely affected the sustainability of this activity. In a region
that often suffers from weak monsoons and drought, recharge of the
groundwater table is limited. Over extraction has already led to a
decrease in the water table and if continued, will pose a serious
threat to water security in the region.
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Sources
-
Government
of India. 2000. India 2000: A Reference Annual.
Publications Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Government of India, p. 321.
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