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Troubled
Waters
Population
Growth and Demand
Human
Health and Security
Pollution
Biodiversity
Loss in Wetland and Coastal Areas
Catchments Degradation
Groundwater
Overuse and Contamination
Gender
and Class Issues
Economic
and Policy Issues
"India,
the land of holy rivers, is fast becoming a land of highly
polluted and even toxic rivers."
(Gupta et al., 1993)
Sustainable water management in India is fast becoming a
necessity, with the looming crisis over water resources in the
country threatening the security and livelihood of the population
and the environment over the coming decades. Growing population
pressures and increased development have led to higher pollution,
over-exploitation and a degradation of the natural environment.
Ineffective government policy and economic incentives have only
encouraged the unsustainable use of water resources in the past
few decades. Managing water resources will require a holistic
approach that will address the pressures arising from various
sources, including the agricultural, industrial and domestic
sectors.
Population
Growth and Demand
The statistics for India are alarming. India is already the
second most populous nation in the world with the human population
exceeding 1 billion. Current estimates for population growth
indicate that the human population of the region will double in
the next twenty to forty years, while global demand for dwindling
water resources will continue to rise at almost twice that rate.
In India, overall water demand will increase from 552 BCM to 1050
BCM by 2025, which will require the use of all the available water
resources in the country (World Bank 1999). Of the present water
usage, 92% is devoted to agriculture, with roughly 3% used in
industry and only 5% for domestic purposes like drinking water and
sanitation (WRI 2000). Demand from the industrial and domestic
sectors is expected to increase with the growing population,
urbanization and industrialization.
In the country, the per capita availability of freshwater has
dropped from over 5,000 cubic meters per year in 1947 to less than
2,000 cubic meters per year in 1997 (World Bank 1999). By 2025,
this figure will fall further to 1,500 cubic meters per year,
which is well below the level at which water stress is considered
to occur. Already, six of India’s twenty major river basins fall
below the water scarcity threshold of 1,000 cubic meters per year,
with five more basins to be added to the list within the next
three decades (World Bank 1999).
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Human
Health and Security
The implications for human health and security are
bleak. Between 0.5 to 1.5 million children under the age of five
die yearly from diarrhea in India, and in Maharashtra State alone,
0.7 million people suffer from water-related diseases of which
1,000 die annually (World Bank 1999). Statistics from other South
Asian nations also serve as an indicator for the situation in
India. In Bangladesh, three quarters of the diseases afflicting
the population has been linked to unsafe water sources and lack of
adequate sanitation measures, while in Pakistan up to one quarter
of hospital cases are from water-related diseases (Hinrichsen et
al. 1997). Water-based and water-related vector diseases, such as
schistosomiasis, malaria, and Japanese encephalitis are also
responsible for increased mortality and morbidity in the region.
Increasing violence over shared resources also
threatens the welfare of Indians and the security of the region as
a whole. A number of conflicts have already arisen between
neighbouring states over water rights in India, necessitating the
establishment of Inter-State Tribunals to end the disputes.
Similarly, India has become involved in disputes with some of its
neighbors over water allocation in several of the shared river
basins with Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. In the past few years,
international treaties regarding the use and allocation of the
Indus and the Ganges Rivers have been signed between India and
Pakistan and India and Bangladesh, respectively. This is an
optimistic sign that cooperation is possible between these
previously hostile states.
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Pollution
Agricultural
/ Industrial / Domestic
Water pollution is a serious problem in India as
almost 70% of its surface water resources and a growing number of
its groundwater reserves are already contaminated by biological,
toxic organic and inorganic pollutants (MOWR 2000). In many cases,
these sources have been rendered unsafe for human consumption as
well as for other activities such as irrigation and industrial
needs. This illustrates that degraded water quality can in effect
contribute to water scarcity as it limits its availability for
both human use and the ecosystem.
In 1995, the Central Pollution Control Board
identified severely polluted stretches on 18 major rivers in India
(World Bank 1999). Not surprisingly, the majority of the stretches
were found in and around large urban areas. The high incidence of
severe contamination near urban areas indicates that the
industrial and domestic sector contribution to water pollution is
much higher than their relative importance to the Indian economy
would imply. Despite this, agricultural activities still dominate
in terms of overall impact on water quality.
Agricultural
The rapid increase in agro-chemical use in the
past five decades has contributed significantly to the pollution
of both surface and groundwater resources. Pesticide consumption
rose from less than 1 million tones (technical grade) in 1948 to a
maximum of 75 million tones in 1990 (CSE 1999). Current pesticide
use is estimated at 52 million tones while fertilizer use was over
14 million tones in 1996-97.
Fertilizers and pesticides have entered the water
supply through runoff and leaching to the groundwater table and
pose a hazard to both human, animal and plant populations. Some of
these chemicals include several substances considered extremely
hazardous by the World Health Organization (WHO) and which are
banned or under strict control in developed countries. Studies on
the Ganges River indicate the presence of chemicals such as HCH,
DDT, endosulfan, methyl malathion, malathion, dimethoate, and
ethion in levels greater than recommended by international
standards (World Bank 1999). Some of these substances have been
known to bioaccumulate in certain organisms, leading to increased
risk of contamination where these organisms are used for human
consumption and a persistence of the chemicals in the environment
over long periods of time.
Water enriched by nutrients leads to a condition
called eutrophication. The sudden availability of limiting
nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphate and potassium, spurs the
growth of aquatic plants and other organisms. In short time the
water body becomes choked with vegetation and the BOD level
decreases. Decaying organic matter releases odorous gases and
partially decomposed matter accumulates on the river or lakebed,
thereby limiting the water’s suitability for human consumption
and other uses. A high level of fertilizer use has been associated
with increased incidences of eutrophication in rivers and lakes in
several of India’s most important water bodies, such as the
Hussein Sagar in Hyderabad and Nainital in Uttar Pradesh (MOWR
2000).
Improper land management practices have also led
to severe soil erosion and water quality degradation in the form
of an increase in sediment load and total suspended solids (TSS).
This problem is particularly noticeable in the mountainous regions
in northern and western India (MOWR 2000). Turbid water is often
not suitable for drinking and has limited use for industrial
purposes due to siltation in machines and reservoirs.
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Industrial
Although the industrial sector only accounts for
3% of the annual water withdrawals in India, its contribution to
water pollution, particularly in urban areas, is considerable.
Wastewater generation from this sector has been estimated at
55,000 million m3 per day, of which 68.5 million m3
are dumped directly into local rivers and streams without prior
treatment (MOWR 2000). The government has called for the
establishment of Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETP) in
industrial areas but implementation has been slow, and most
industries are not connected to CETPs or only partially treat
their wastewater before disposal. The Central and State Pollution
Control Boards have identified 1,532 "grossly polluting"
industries in India, although almost all industries do not comply
with emission standards (World Bank 1999).
Wastewater from industrial activities is often
contaminated with highly toxic organic and inorganic substances,
some of which are persistent pollutants and remain in the
environment for many years. For instance, over 50% of the urban
organic load in some cities originates from industrial effluent,
and heavy metal contamination from thermal power, tannery and
mining activities has occurred in several locations (World Bank
1999). Water contamination from industrial areas is compounded due
to the usually high concentration of industries over a small area.
Increasing industrial development, coupled with inadequate zoning
and emissions regulations, will only aggravate the problem in
coming years.
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Domestic
All of India’s fourteen major river systems are
heavily polluted, mostly from the 50 million cubic meters of
untreated sewage discharged into them each year (APCSS 1999). The
domestic sector is responsible for the majority of the wastewater
generation in India. Combined, the 22 largest cities in the
country produce over 7,267 million liters of domestic wastewater
per day, of which slightly over 80% is collected for treatment (CSE
1999).
Inadequate treatment of human and animal wastes
contributes to the high incidence of water-related diseases in the
country. To date, only 14% of rural and 70% or urban inhabitants
have access to adequate sanitation facilities (WRI 2000).
Therefore, water contaminated by human waste is often discharged
directly into watercourses or seeps into the groundwater table
from faulty septic tanks or pit latrines. The level of fecal
coliform bacteria in most rivers often exceeds WHO standards and
is responsible for causing a number of gastrointestinal ailments
among the population.
Improper disposal of solid waste also leads to
surface and groundwater pollution. Runoff from garbage dumps and
city streets carries litter, deposed particulate matter and
chemicals to nearby streams and canals. Leaching from landfills
and garbage pits transports toxic substances and heavy metals to
the water table. Annual production of solid waste in India has
been estimated at 2,000 million tons (MOWR 2000). This figure will
undoubtedly continue to increase with the growing population and
as an improvement in the socio-economic condition of rural and
urban residents leads to higher consumption of disposable goods.
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Biodiversity
Loss in Wetland and Coastal Areas
India is home to over 6.5% and 12.5% of the world’s
animal and plant species, respectively, of which almost 7,000 are
endemic to the subcontinent (CSE 1999). However, habitat
destruction has endangered many endemic species in both freshwater
and coastal areas. Freshwater fish species are the most threatened
since they are more susceptible to water pollution and
environmental change. Of the country’s 2,200 fish species 3.6%
are considered endangered, vulnerable, rare or are of
indeterminate status (CSE 1999). Severe environmental pollution
has also endangered other freshwater aquatic animals like the
Gangetic dolphin and several species of aquatic birds, amphibians,
reptiles and insects.
Wetlands are associated with most of the major
river systems in the country and cover a total land area of 4.1
million hectares (Singh 2000). Under the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance, only 193,000 hectares of India’s
wetlands are protected (WRI 2000). Most of the country’s
wetlands have become degraded due to pollution and development
pressures. In north Bihar, where almost 275,000 hectares are
wetland areas, eutrophication, agricultural pollutants and drying
are threatening the local bird and fish populations, not to
mention the livelihood of the residents dependent on the wetland
ecosystem (Singh 2000). Additional pressures such as the
conversion of wetlands for agriculture has also led to a loss of
biodiversity in these areas.
Like wetlands, coastal areas have also been
affected by increasing development and pollution. Almost one
quarter of India’s population lives within 60km of the
shoreline, mostly owing to the coastal mega-cities of Calcutta and
Mumbai (Bombay) (World Bank 1999). As a result, industrial and
domestic pollution has severely degraded estuarine and coastal
environments. It has been estimated that over 20,000 million
liters per day of mostly untreated domestic and domestic sewage
reaches India’s coastal areas. Oil contamination from tanker
traffic in the Bay of Bengal has also adversely affected marine
and coastal animal and fish populations, such as a number of
economically valuable shrimp species (World Bank 1999).
Mangrove forests are among the most biologically
productive environments in the world and cover a significant
portion of the coastal zone in India. Their economic value has
been underrated and most mangroves are threatened by development
or by destruction from fodder and fuel-wood collection (World
Bank). Pollution has also had negative effects: in Gujarat, waste
by-products from salt production have killed several hectares of
mangrove forests (World Bank 1999). The loss of these regions will
have a significant effect on overall biodiversity and ecosystem
health in India.
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Catchment
Degradation
Deforestation in the upper watersheds, as well as
poor land management practices, have been increasing the sediment
load in the rivers, while augmenting surface runoff and decreasing
infiltration. Over 6,000 million tons of topsoil are lost to India’s
rivers each year, affecting downstream hydraulics and decreasing
dam capacity by an estimated 0.5 to 1.2% annually (World Bank
1999). This further reduces the dam’s ability to store water for
other purposes, thereby increasing the dependence on alternative
water sources such as groundwater. Decreased infiltration and dam
capacity also has implications for flood control and mitigation.
Waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity are plaguing
heavily irrigated areas across the country, and are a consequence
of poor drainage and irrigation water management practices.
Estimates place the total loss as of 1991 of agricultural land to
these factors in India at 5.76 million hectares (World Bank 1999).
Reclamation of saline and alkaline soils is expensive and
difficult. Therefore these lands are often abandoned without
undergoing any remedial action. Saline and alkaline soils pose a
particular threat to groundwater quality, as leaching simply
displaces the problem from the soil surface to groundwater
reserves.
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Groundwater
Overuse and Contamination
Groundwater accounts for over 80% of the rural
domestic water supply and 45% of the irrigation water supply in
India, although current estimates indicate that only 30% of the
total potential groundwater reserves are being exploited (World
Bank 1999, MOWR 2000). Nevertheless, greater reliance on
groundwater resources is leading to the depletion of aquifers
around the country. Already, areas in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh and the Deccan States are seeing rapid decreases in the
groundwater levels (World Bank 1999). Unsustainable levels of
groundwater extraction lead to the overall depletion in water
resources over time, particularly where withdrawal rates exceed
the replenishment rate of the aquifer. Currently over 10% of
blocks classified by the Central Groundwater Board have been
identified as being over-exploited and blocks where exploitation
is beyond the critical level have been increasing at a rate of
5.5% each year (World Bank 1999).
Contamination of groundwater from leaching of
agro-chemicals and trace minerals has led to a reduction in the
utilizable water supply in many areas and threatened the health of
both humans and the natural environment. Groundwater pollution is
particularly insidious since the effects are not immediate owing
to the slow progression of water through the subsurface.
Contamination of the water table is also almost irreversible.
Despite this, most of India’s groundwater reserves are
considered safe for human consumption, although some aquifers are
contaminated with naturally occurring minerals such as arsenic,
iron, sulfur and fluoride. Arsenic contamination has plagued parts
of West Bengal and Bangladesh and has led to severe illness among
the population, while high levels of fluoride have affected the
health of nearly half a million Indians (MOWR 2000).
In coastal areas, saltwater intrusion from
excessive groundwater pumping has also contaminated local
aquifers, leaving them unusable for irrigation and human
consumption. Coastal areas of Gujarat, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu
have suffered from salt-water ingress and must now find
alternative water resources.
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Gender
and Class Issues
Gender and class issues have restricted freshwater
access to the marginalized members of society. India is home to
one sixth of the world’s population. It is also one of the
poorest countries in the world, with 47% of the population living
below the international poverty line (WRI 2000). Access to safe
drinking water and sanitation is mostly available in urban areas,
and even then, only to the affluent. Roughly 20% of the population
in the region does not have access to safe water, while 70%, live
without adequate sanitation. Of those who do have sanitation
services, 73% are located in urban areas (WRI 2000).
As the principle users and collectors of water in
rural Indian households, women continue to bear many of the costs
associated with increasing water scarcity, while having the least
amount of input into the use and allocation of the resource. In
many rural areas, scarcity of resources requires women and
children to travel long distances to fetch water for daily
household needs. One estimate has women from semi-arid regions in
India travelling on average 1,400 km per year to fetch water from
distant sources (Gupta et al. 1993). The investment in time, which
could be devoted to other income-generating activities or
education, has only perpetuated the poverty cycle in many regions.
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Economic
and Policy Issues
Government policies and regulations on water
management have so far been unable to stem the growing problems
related to water quality and quantity in India. For the most part,
this is due to the lack of implementation and enforcement of the
existing regulations. The National Water Policy (NWP), which was
adopted in 1987, is the principal document stating the government’s
position on water development issues. The government’s
commitment to holistic development of the country’s water
resources is well stated, but so far little has been done to
actually employ these recommendations in the decision-making
process. Similarly, enforcement of the regulations governing the
development and protection of water resources has been poor and
serious abuses continue to occur throughout the country. More
stringent and enforceable regulations need to be put into place to
prevent further degradation and wastage.
Inadequate planning and coordination by the
central government has also led to the development of water
schemes which have not been able to address the needs of the
agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors. Responsibility for
the management of India’s water resources has been given to a
number of different government Ministries but cooperation between
these various agencies has been poor. The result has been an
inefficient allocation of water resources and an inability to
fully exploit current schemes across all sectors (World Bank
1999).
Economic incentives and subsidies have not been
beneficial in terms of promoting conservation of water resources.
Government subsidies to the irrigation and domestic water supply
sectors in the past several decades have allowed for greater
expansion and development of both, but have also led to a complete
under-valuing of the resource. For surface and groundwater
irrigation, charges are not based on the unit of volume consumed
and in many cases, have not been revised for several years.
Groundwater extraction by pumping is indirectly encouraged through
subsidies for fuel and electricity (World Bank 1999). Rural and
urban water charges are much lower than the cost of provision and
suffer from poor operation and maintenance. The result in all
sectors has been higher consumption and insufficient cost
recovery.
Effective economic and management policies are
needed to prevent the crisis that threatens India in the coming
years. Good management of the country’s water resources will
effectively reduce the amount of pollution and over-exploitation
that is currently plaguing the nation’s surface, ground and
coastal waters. The consequent improvement in water quantity and
quality will also have repercussions in terms of ameliorating
human and environmental health. In the past few years, the
government has recognized the importance of promoting the
sustainable management of India’s water resources and has placed
water development as one of its main priorities in the coming
decades.
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