Too much,
too little
The characteristics of
water in India
Water availability on the Indian subcontinent is strongly
influenced by a number of climatic and geographic factors.
Together these combine to provide India with enough freshwater
to meet the various demands arising from the agricultural,
industrial and domestic sectors. However, the actual
distribution of water resources over space and time limits
access to certain geographic regions and is confined to only
certain months of the year. Government policies and economic
incentives have also determined how and how much of India’s
water can be used. The following discusses some of the major
characteristics of water in India: where it comes from, where it
goes and how it is currently being managed.
Climate
The climate in India is dominated by the seasonal monsoon, but
regional differences in the micro-climate abound due to the
varying topography and the influence of the oceans. Indeed, the
presence of the Himalayas and the Indian Ocean lend the country
characteristics of both a tropical climate and a continental one.
The result is an extreme in temperature and moisture levels from
the arid conditions of the Thar Desert to the rainforest climate
of the Northeastern States. Similarly, temperatures vary from
below freezing in the higher passes of the Himalayas to torrid
heat on the Gangetic Plains. It is therefore difficult to
generalize about the climate in India as a whole. Nevertheless,
India does provide one of the best examples of a monsoon climate
due to the distinct division between the wet and dry seasons.
The monsoon in India arises from the reversal of the prevailing
wind direction from Southwest to Northeast and results in three
distinct seasons during the course of the year. The Southwest
monsoon brings heavy rains over most of the country between June
and October, and is referred to commonly as the ‘wet’ season.
Moisture laden winds sweep in from the Indian Ocean as
low-pressure areas develop over the subcontinent and release their
moisture in the form of heavy rainfall. Most of the annual
rainfall in India comes at this time with the exception of in
Tamil Nadu, which receives over half of its rain during the
Northeast monsoon from October to November.
The retreating monsoon brings relatively cool and dry weather
to most of India as drier air from the Asian interior flows over
the subcontinent. From November until February, temperatures
remain cool and precipitation low. In northern India it can become
quite cold, with snow occurring in the Himalayas as weak cyclonic
storms from the west settle over the mountains. Between March and
June, the temperature and humidity begin to rise steadily in
anticipation of the Southwest monsoon. This pre-monsoonal period
is often seen as a third distinct season although the post-monsoon
in October also presents unique characteristics in the form of
slightly cooler temperatures and occasional light drizzling rain.
These transitional periods are also associated with the arrival of
cyclonic tropical storms that batter the coastal areas of India
with high winds, intense rain and wave activity.
As mentioned, rainfall and temperature vary greatly depending
on season and geographic location and even within these, the
timing and intensity of the monsoon is notoriously capricious. The
result is a vastly unequal and unpredictable distribution over
time and space. In general, the northern half of the subcontinent
sees greater extremes in temperature and rainfall with the former
decreasing towards the north and the latter towards the west.
Rainfall in the Thar Desert and areas of Rajasthan can be as low
as 200mm per year, whereas on the Shillong Plateau in the
Northeast, average annual rainfall can exceed 10,000 mm per year.
Similarly, temperatures vary from sub-zero in altitude during the
winter months to 48C highs in mid-summer. On average, the mean
maximum temperature during the coolest months in northern India is
21C and during the summer months between 38-43C. The extreme
southern portion of the country sees less variation in temperature
and rainfall. In Kerala, the temperature varies by only 2.5C
around the annual mean of 27C and the total annual rainfall is
3,000 mm (CSE, 1995).
Top
Water
Resources
Surface
Water / Groundwater / Water
Harvesting Systems
Precipitation in the form of rain and snowfall
provide over 4000 km3 of fresh water to India, most of
which returns to the oceans via the many large rivers which flow
across the subcontinent. A portion of this water is absorbed by
the soil and is stored in underground aquifers. A much smaller
percentage is stored in inland water bodies both natural (lakes
and ponds) and man-made (tanks and reservoirs).
Of the 1869 km3 available as annual
surface runoff, only an estimated 1122 km3 can be
exploited due to topographic constraints and distribution effects.
The calculated per capita water availability (from 1997) is 1967 m3,
although this value varies from a low of 360 m3 in the
Sabarmati basin to 16589 m3 in the Brahmaputra and
Barak basins (Ministry of Water Resources, 2001). Already, the
potential of most river basins is being exploited beyond 50% and
several basins are considered to be water scarce. However, when
considered as a whole, India is not a water scarce country and
ranks among the top ten water rich countries in the world
according to data from World Resources 2000-2001 (World Resources
Institute, 2000).
Surface Water
Twelve major river systems drain the subcontinent
along with a number of smaller rivers and streams. Of these
twelve, the Ganges - Brahmaputra and the Indus systems are the
most important in terms of water provision and their impact on
Indian society. Together, these systems drain almost half of the
country and carry more than 40% of the utilisable surface water
from their source in the Himalayas to the ocean.
Over 70% of India’s rivers drain in the Bay of
Bengal, mostly as part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra system. The
Arabian Sea, on the western side of the country, receives 20% of
the total drainage from the Indus system as well as a number of
smaller rivers down the western coast. The remaining 10% drains
into interior basins and the few natural lakes scattered across
the country (Encyclopedia Britannica Online 2000).
The flow regime of India’s rivers is strongly
influenced by the monsoon climate. The advent of the monsoon rains
results in an annual peak in streamflow in most rivers and streams
across the subcontinent. Rivers with sources in the mountains see
an additional peak in streamflow during the spring snowmelt. In
many cases, water levels increase dramatically and flooding is
common. During the dry season, the streamflow diminishes in most
large rivers and even disappears entirely in smaller tributaries
and streams. To regulate the flow in these rivers and distribute
water more evenly throughout the year, a number of large dams have
been built on the principal river systems. However, even these
measures have been inadequate to control water availability in the
country, especially during the dry season.
Top of
Water Resources Top
Groundwater
Groundwater represents one of the most important
water sources in India and accounts for over 400 km3 of
the annual utilizable resource in the country. Due to the highly
variable nature of the climate, groundwater has become a popular
alternative for irrigation and domestic water use across India.
Reliance on groundwater resources is particularly strong where dry
season surface water levels are low or where wet season flows are
too disruptive to be easily tapped. In addition to being
accessible, groundwater quality is generally excellent in most
areas and presents a relatively safe source of drinking water for
Indians in rural and urban centres.
The presence and availability of groundwater
varies greatly with changes in topography, subsurface geology and
the prevailing climate in the region. In some areas, groundwater
exists in deep aquifers while in others the water is stored near
the surface. The location of the aquifer also affects its recharge
rate and its susceptibility to pollution and overuse.
In general, the mountainous and hilly regions in
the north and west do not allow adequate infiltration and as a
consequence, groundwater is mostly limited to valleys and other
lower lying areas. In the peninsular part of the country, the
underlying geology limits the formation of large continuous
aquifers. Groundwater is therefore scattered where fissures permit
adequate storage or is found in shallow depressions near the
surface. As a result, the overall yield potential in this region
is low although some areas may see medium to high potential
depending on the local hydrogeology. Coastal regions are usually
rich in groundwater owing to the largely alluvial terrain, but the
aquifers risk being easily contaminated by saltwater ingress due
to overpumping. The alluvial tract of the Gangetic plain, which
extends over 2000 km across central and northern India has the
best potential for groundwater extraction in the country. This
large area possesses many favourable characteristics for
groundwater storage and recharge, and the yield over most of the
region has been estimated at moderate to high.
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Water Resources Top
Water
Harvesting Systems
The unequal distribution of water resources over
time and geographic area has necessitated the development of water
harvesting systems. These structures are designed to help capture
and store rainwater during the monsoon season and serve as a
source of drinking and irrigation water during the rest of the
year. In India, tanks, ponds and reservoirs cover a total of 5
million hectares, the majority of which lies in the southern
portion of the country (MOWR, 2001). Although they do not make a
significant contribution to the total freshwater water resource in
India, water harvesting systems do have a strong impact in terms
of drinking water and irrigation provision on a local scale.
Many of the water harvesting structures used in
India are based on ancient models and are therefore highly adapted
to the prevailing climatic and hydrologic conditions of the area.
The potential of these systems to supply adequate freshwater to
all areas and sectors is high. However, since colonial times,
these systems have been increasingly abandoned and neglected in
favour of large dam and canal irrigation projects. So far, these
‘modern’ structures have been successful in providing water to
portions of rural and urban India, yet high economic, social and
environmental costs have reduced their overall benefit. As a
result, development and civil society organisations have been
advocating the return to local water harvesting systems for
domestic and irrigation purposes. As awareness and public opinion
continue to grow, water harvesting systems will become
increasingly more important source of water in India.
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Water Resources Top
Demands
Agricultural
/ Industrial / Domestic
Access to adequate water is one of the leading
factors limiting development in India. Agricultural, industrial
and domestic uses are competing more and more for a limited
supply. The agricultural sector continues to dominate water use
owing to its continued importance to the Indian economy, while
industrial demands are increasing as the sector continues to grow.
Domestic needs claim only a small portion of the annual water
withdrawals as access to adequate water and sanitation supplies
remains low throughout most of the country. Greater access and an
improvement in the socio-economic situation in rural India will
likely result in higher demand for water from this sector in the
coming years.
Agricultural
Agriculture remains central to the Indian economy
and it therefore receives the greater share of the annual water
allocation. According to the World Resources Institute (2000), 92%
of India’s utilisable water is devoted to this sector, mostly in
the form of irrigation.
The necessity of irrigation for agricultural
production is great due to the unpredictable nature of the
monsoon. In regions completely dependent on rainfed agriculture, a
weak monsoon season can result in drought conditions that can lead
to reduced yields or even total crop failure. Even during normal
monsoon seasons, farmers are usually able to produce only one crop
per year and yields are generally much lower than in irrigated
areas. Indeed, the productivity of irrigated agriculture per unit
of land has been estimated at seven times that of rainfed
agriculture (World Bank, 1999).
Massive investment in irrigation in the past fifty
years has resulted in an expansion of the gross irrigated area
from 23 million hectares in 1951 to over 90 million hectares in
1997, and plans exist to continue developing irrigation
infrastructure over the coming years (World Bank, 1999). This
growth in irrigated area, along with improvements in farming
technologies and plant genetics, has been responsible for the
incredible growth in crop production over this period. The
increase in production has also contributed greatly to the
national economy and to India’s food security. However,
irrigation expansion has also placed greater demands on surface
and groundwater resources. Groundwater alone accounts for 39% of
the water used in agriculture and surface water use often comes at
the expense of other sectors such as the industrial and domestic
supply.
At the other extreme, flood conditions can be
equally devastating to the agricultural sector and requires
careful planning in terms of drainage and the construction of
flood control structures. Development projects such as dam and
canal construction were devised to help mitigate the effect of the
monsoon on rivers and seasonal streams. For the most part, they
have been successful at reducing the impact of flooding in some
areas, although their effectiveness is limited in the face of
exceptional rainfall events.
Top of Demands
Top
Industrial
In the past several decades, industrial production
has increased in India owing to an increasingly open economy and
greater emphasis on industrial development and international
trade. Water consumption for this sector has consequently risen
and will continue growing at a rate of 4.2% per year (World Bank,
1999). According to the World Bank, demand for industrial, energy
production and other uses will rise from 67 billion m3
to 228 billion m3 by 2025.
Hydroelectric generation already accounts for a
large percentage of the water demand from this sector. The
potential in India has been estimated at 84,000 MW, of which only
22,000 MW is currently being harnessed (MOWR, 2001). The large
untapped potential, particularly in the northern regions of India,
and the growing demands for electricity from a larger population
and industrial sector, will ensure that development of this
activity continues in the coming years.
Top of Demands
Top
Domestic
Demand from the domestic sector has remained low
and accounts for only 5% of the annual freshwater withdrawals in
India (World Resources Institute, 2000). Domestic water use will
increase as the population continues to grow and access to water
is improved. Recent data from the World Bank indicates that demand
over the next twenty years will double from 25 billion m3 to
52 billion m3.
Only 85% of the urban and 79% of the rural
population has access to safe drinking water and fewer still have
access to adequate sanitation facilities (World Resources
Institute, 2000). The central government made a commitment to
improve access to water in rural and urban areas in the National
Water Policy adopted in 1987. The original goal of providing water
to 100% of all citizens of India by 1991 had to be revised and now
stands at 90% access to urban and 85% access to rural areas,
respectively. Drinking water and sanitation nevertheless remain
high priorities on the government agenda.
Most urban areas are serviced by a municipal water
distribution system. Usually, the municipal water supply
originates from local reservoirs or canals, but in some cases
water may be imported through inter-basin transfer. Although the
major cities in India enjoy access to central water supply
systems, these schemes often do not adequately cover the entire
urban population and are notoriously inefficient and unreliable.
In rural areas, access to water is even more precarious. Over 80%
of the rural domestic water comes from groundwater sources since
it is more reliable in terms of water quantity and quality. Still,
in areas where water is scarce, rural women must travel long
distances to wells or streams to fetch water for their daily
needs.
Top of Demands
Top
Economics
Operation and Maintenance (O & M) of the water
distribution systems, reservoirs, canals and other infrastructure
requires financial input from the central and state governments,
although in some cases the cost of O & M is also shared by the
users. In the past, allocation of funds has been inadequate to
properly maintain the existing structures and many have fallen
into disrepair with consequent losses in efficiency. Even current
construction projects suffer from lack of funding and lengthy
delays are not uncommon. With water consumption estimated to
double in the next twenty years (World Bank, 1999), greater
emphasis will have to be placed on the financial requirements of
the water sector.
Due to its important contribution to the Indian
economy, the agricultural sector receives greater attention in
terms of financing and subsidies. Not surprisingly, irrigation has
been the largest recipient of government funds. Over US$ 9 billion
was spent in this area during the Eigth Plan and subsidies to this
sector accounted for almost 0.3% of the GDP during the 1994-95
fiscal year (World Bank, 1999). The Drinking Water and Sanitation
Supply sector in both rural and urban areas has also been subject
to subsidies and rate structures that have not reflected the true
cost of the resource and discouraged conservation.
For the most part, government spending in all
water-related sectors is running at a deficit. Development of new
water supply schemes and maintenance of older structures will
continue to exhaust government funds while new issues, such as
water pollution and scarcity, will require greater investment over
the long term.
Top
Government
and Policies
National
Water Policy / Acts and
Regulations / International
Treaties
The management of India’s water resources falls
under the jurisdiction of a number of government agencies,
although the primary responsibility for the development of water
belongs to the individual States. The Central government oversees
the implementation of national policy on resource development and
exploitation, as well as manages inter-state and international
rivers and river valleys. It also provides technical advice to
individual States on development, flood control, navigation,
coastal erosion, dam safety, navigation and hydropower, if
required.
The Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) is the
principal agency responsible for water in India and as such,
oversees the planning and development of the resource from policy
formulation to infrastructure support. Other central departments
working in water are:
Ministry of Agriculture: watershed development
and irrigation
Ministry of Power: hydro-power development
Ministry of Environment and Forests: water
quality
Ministry of Rural Development: watershed
development and drinking water provision
Ministry of Industry: industrial uses of water
Ministry of Urban Development: urban drinking
water provision and sanitation
Central Pollution Control Board: water quality
monitoring
Indian Council of Agriculture Research:
development of water management techniques
National Water
Policy
A comprehensive policy on water is necessary in
the face of the growing number of social, economic and
environmental issues surrounding water resources in India. In
1987, the newly formed National Water Resources Council adopted
the National Water Policy (NWP) and submitted the document to
Parliament for implementation. The NWP is the primary document
stating the position of the Government of India (GOI) on water
resource issues ranging from drought and flood management to
drinking water provision.
In essence, the policy serves as a guideline to
help planners and managers develop the country’s water resources
to their maximum potential. But, the adoption of the policy is
also a step-forward for the GOI in terms of promoting the
sustainable management of the country’s water resources. As
stated in the NWP:
"As the country prepares itself to enter
the 21st century, efforts to develop, conserve,
utilise and manage this important resource have to be guided by
national perspectives. The need for a national water policy is
thus abundantly clear: water is a scarce and precious national
resource to be planned, developed and conserved as such, and on
an integrated and environmentally sound basis, keeping in view
the needs of the States concerned."
The policy addresses many issues regarding the
planning, development and allocation of water, including
groundwater and surface water sources. Among the points addressed
in the policy are:
§ Development
of standardized national information system containing data on
water availability and use is essential for appropriate
planning;
§ Resource
planning should be conducted using a catchment or a watershed as
the basic unit;
§ Water
development projects should be multi-purpose and address various
priorities such as drinking water provision and
flood-mitigation;
§ Environmental
impact of new projects should be assessed and minimized where
possible;
§ Socially
disadvantaged groups such as Scheduled Castes and Tribes and
other minority groups are to be included in the planning process
as much as possible, and farmers must become increasingly
involved in irrigation management policies;
§ Groundwater
development should be based on the basis of potential and the
recharge capabilities of the aquifer;
§ Water
allocation should be based on the following priorities: drinking
water, irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other
uses;
§ Irrigation
planning should attempt to maximize benefits to farmers and
integrate soil and water conservation practices;
§ Water
rates should reflect the true cost of water use and encourage
economy of the resource;
§ Promotion
of conservation through education, regulation and incentives is
encouraged;
§ Development
of a master plan for flood control and management should be
undertaken and include soil conservation, forestry management,
zoning and forecasting considerations.
§ Drought-prone
areas should be given priority in water development projects and
programmes such as soil moisture conservation and water
harvesting practices should be encouraged;
§ Additional
research in a number of areas such as hydro-meteorology,
groundwater hydrology and recharge, water harvesting, crops and
cropping systems, sedimentation and reservoirs, river morphology
and hydraulics, recycling and re-use, and sea water resources
should be pursued.
The National Water Resources Council is the body
responsible for reviewing the progress made by the government in
implementing the policy. The Council is composed of Secretaries
from the various ministries associated with water resources and
the Chief Secretaries of States/Union Territories. Through the
National Water Board, the Council is able to make
recommendations regarding the financing and development of new
projects and provide suggestions on further actions to be taken.
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of Government Top
Acts and
Regulations
Water in India is governed under three different
Acts: the Environmental Protection Act (1986), the River Boards
Act (1956) and the Inter-State Water Disputes Act (1956).
Other Acts and Regulations affect water resources in different
ways by addressing its importance for agriculture, biodiversity
and conservation and drinking water. These three Acts,
however, have the broadest scope in terms of how they impact all
aspects of water management.
Environmental Protection Act
The Environmental Protection Act was ratified in
1986 and is based on decisions made at the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment that was held in Stockholm, Sweden in June of 1972.
The Act is concerned with the "protection and improvement
of the human environment" and as such, does not focus
solely on water resource issues. The principal impact of the
Environmental Protection Act on water is in terms of protecting
water from environmental pollution. In the Act, the government
has the power to:
-plan and execute programs related to control
and abatement of environmental pollution;
-establish quality standards and maximum
allowable limits for emissions and discharges;
-develop standards for the handling of
hazardous materials and other substances;
-restrict development in sensitive areas; and
-conduct inspection of facilities as needed to
prevent environmental pollution.
Contravention of the Act can result in
imprisonment up to five years or a fine up to one lakh Rupees,
or both. An additional fine of up to five thousand Rupees per
day can be levied if the polluter purposely continues to
contravene the regulations.
River Boards Act
The regulation and development of inter-state
rivers and river valleys was to be entrusted to various River
Boards when this Act was ratified in 1956. The River Boards were
designed to advise the central government on development
opportunities, co-ordinate activities and resolve disputes.
Under their mandate, the Boards were required to provide advice
to the government on the following topics:
*conservation with a view to control and
optimal use of water resources;
*promotion and operation of schemes related to
irrigation, water supply and drainage;
*promotion and opteration of schemes related to
hydro-power and flood control;
*promotion and control of naviagation;
*promotion of afforestation and control of soil
erosion;
*prevention of pollution; and
*other duties as deemed necessary.
The Indian government has been unable to
constitute a River Board since the Act was enacted almost fifty
years ago. However, there is recognition that the Act should be
revised and amendments are currently underway to strengthen its
powers.
Inter-State Water Disputes (ISWD) Act
Since the majority of rivers in India are shared
between neighbouring States, the ISWD Act was enacted in 1956 to
adjudicate any disputes regarding the distribution or control of
the rivers or the river valleys. The Act gives the government
the power to constitute Tribunals to serve as intermediaries in
the disputes. To date, five Inter-State Water Tribunals have
been established:
§ Godavari
Water Disputes Tribunal (April 1969)
§ Krishna
Water Disputes Tribunal (April 1969)
§ Narmada
Water Disputes Tribunal (October 1969)
§ Ravi and
Beas Waters Tribunal (April 1986)
§ Cauvery
Water Disputes Tribunal (June 1990)
The first three Tribunals have been completed,
but a final decision is still pending on the last two matters.
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of Government Top
International
Treaties
A number of international disputes regarding the
allocation and management of the water in several large
transboundary rivers have arisen between India and its
neighbours. Fortunately, these differences have been settled
through diplomatic channels with the signing of treaties and
agreements. The three principal treaties are:
§ The Indus
Waters Treaty - India and Pakistan (1960)
§ The Indo
Nepal Treaty on the Integrated Development of Mahakali River
(1996)
§ The Ganges
Water Sharing Treaty with Bangladesh: Sharing of Lean Season
Flow of Ganga at Farakka Barrage in India (1996)
All three disputes arose from disagreements on
the allocation of water resources between India and the other
countries. In the case of both the Indus and Mahakali Rivers,
the equitable distribution of irrigation water was under
contention. The Farakka Barrage dispute originated when the
water level entering Bangladesh from India was reduced to almost
nothing during the lean season (January to May) due to the
construction of the Farakka Barrage on the Indian side of the
border. In 1996, an agreement was reached between the
governments of India and Bangladesh to share the flow during the
lean season in the ratio of 60% (Bangladesh) and 40% (India).
Although the treaties have been signed, there
are still a number of issues which remain to be resolved.
However, in general, the treaties have generated a sense of
goodwill between India and its neighbours which bodes well for
future collaboration.
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